Ars Poetica

The poem outlines a theory of literary composition and criticism based on ancient Greek and Roman sources. Allusions to classical sources pervade the poem. The allusions set apart Horace’s poem from a conventional treatise. For example, Horace writes, “Homer has instructed us in what measure the achievements of kings, and chiefs, and direful war might be written,” an allusion to stories from the Iliad and Odyssey (Lines 73-98, Paragraph 1).

Although poets have the power of conjuring images and sounds from the imagination, they too have a responsibility to instill harmony in the subject matter, the precision of form, and the adherence to tradition. Here, the theme of The Necessity of Unity and Consistency appears through Greco-Roman references and allusions. The principles of organization, arrangement, and word choice fall under these thematic categories. In this respect, Horace endorses an adherence to a classical canon of literature that exemplifies unity and consistency. Yet Horace allows poets, whose innovation in language exceeds the capacities of their artistic predecessors, the right to amend and enhance tradition: “As leaves in the woods are changed with the fleeting years; the earliest fall off first: in this manner words perish with old age, and those lately invented flourish and thrive, like men in the time of youth” (Lines 44-72, Paragraph 1). Furthermore, Horace recognizes the ephemerality of language and art: “We, and our works, are doomed to death […] Mortal works must perish” (Lines 44-72, Paragraph 1). He insists that only the greatest poetic masters should attempt to revive older modes and words. Only those poets who have studied and mastered the supreme models of poetic beauty can attempt to write poetry that reaches for, although never attains, aesthetic immortality. In this sense, the poet must have the requisite training and skill to achieve aesthetic eminence.

When Horace notes that language should affect the emotions of audiences as reflected in the behaviors and personalities of characters, he writes, “Let Medea be fierce and untractable, Ino an object of pity, Ixion perfidious, Io wandering, Orestes in distress” (Lines 99-124, Paragraph 3). Here, Horace references characters from Euripidean drama. Plays by Aeschylus and poetry by Pindar also used these stock characters from Greek mythology. Again, Horace advises future poets to emulate the aesthetic and poetic creations of Greek writers to write beautiful and powerful poetry. Horace also utilizes repetition to persuade his audience. The constant and varied restatement of claims through allusions, exempla, and maxims corresponds to Horace’s intended audience, i.e., the two young Piso boys and their father. Thus, the audience dictates Horace’s style, message, and tone.

Horace’s rules on consistency and unity relate to the theme of The Purpose of Decorum in Poetry. Horace defines decorum as appropriate syntax and diction in poetic composition: “In a word, be your subject what it will, let it be merely simple and uniform” (Lines 1-43, Paragraph 2). Simplicity and uniformity involve a balance wherein the poet studies the tradition to differentiate between appropriate forms in relation to the chosen subject matter. The notion of decorum encompasses dramatic considerations, including characterization, plot development, dialogue, and setting. It also incorporates considerations of formal elements, like meter and diction. He writes, “In the choice of his words, too, the author of the projected poem must be delicate and cautious, he must embrace one and reject another: you will express yourself eminently well, if a dexterous combination should give an air of novelty to a well-known word” (Lines 44-72, Paragraph 1).

Technical perfection requires the poet to know different metric effects such as unstressed versus stressed syllables and long as opposed to short lines. Each metric decision must correspond to the momentum of the action and the consistency in characterization. Character consistency involves matching the appropriate actions to a fictional or historical person’s personality. Therefore, language needs to correspond with character, and characters need to conform to their intended personalities and behaviors. He says, “You, that write, either follow tradition, or invent such fables as are congruous to themselves” (Lines 99-124, Paragraph 2).

Too often, he says, poets try to represent certitude and perfection without understanding the causes and effects of their subject matters: “The great majority of us poets, father, and youths worthy such a father, are misled by the appearance of right” (Lines 1-43, Paragraph 3). In these situations, Horace recommends that poets choose the subjects they know best. Otherwise, the poetry will be deficient in areas where the poet is ignorant. The poet must also account for their personality and behaviors. They must know their capabilities as an author and the tastes of the audience to write with decorum: “Neither elegance of style, nor a perspicuous disposition, shall desert the man, by whom the subject matter is chosen judiciously” (Lines 1-43, Paragraph 5).

In the latter half of Ars Poetica, Horace maneuvers away from the elements of poetry and focuses on the quality and conduct of the poet. Horace, writing in a tone of ironic modesty, says that he “will teach the duty and business [of an author]; whence he may be stocked with rich materials; what nourishes and forms the poet; what gives grace, what not; what is the tendency of excellence, what that of error” (Lines 275-308, Paragraph 2). Despite his talent as an artist, Horace justifies his reason for writing Ars Poetica as an act of service in the form of literary criticism.

Horace addresses the role of the poet in terms of social utility, talent, and causes of inspiration. Because of the writer’s ability to inspire and persuade, the audience provides an “honor accrued to divine poets, and their songs” (Lines 391-418, Paragraph 1). Horace also addresses a debate about whether a poet’s esteem emerges from talent or craft, which he refers to as nature and art. “Ars” translated from Latin means “craft;” “poetica” comes from the Ancient Greek “poiesis,” meaning creation. Ars Poetica can be translated as the craft of creation. Horace finds a balance between nature and art, contending that neither can exist without the other. He writes, “For my part, I can neither conceive what study can do without a rich [natural] vein, nor what rude genius can avail of itself: so much does the one require the assistance of the other, and so amicably do they conspire [to produce the same effect]” (Lines 391-418, Paragraph 2). At the conclusion, Horace speculates on the interrelation between poetry and “madness.” Horace says, “Let poets have the privilege and license to die [as they please]. He who saves a man against his will, does the same with him who kills him [against his will]” (Lines 453ff, Paragraph 1). In this quotation, Horace may have been directly counseling his audience, the Piso boys, to treat poets with kindness. In sum, Horace’s advice expresses his practical and disciplined theory of poetry that directly influences an audience’s thoughts, lives, and perceptions.