Gulag: A History

Applebaum explores the origins of the Soviet Union’s labor camp system, later known as the Gulag, against the backdrop of the 1917 Russian revolutions and the early years of Bolshevik rule. After seizing power in a revolution that swept away Alexander Kerensky’s post-czarist Russian Provisional Government, the Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, faced the immense challenge of consolidating their rule in a country beset by war, internal dissent, and economic collapse. Amidst this turmoil, they implemented drastic measures to suppress opposition, marking the beginning of a systemic use of repression that would become a hallmark of Soviet governance.

The Bolsheviks’ approach to dealing with perceived enemies was both ideological and pragmatic. Lenin envisioned labor camps not only as a means of punishing the bourgeoisie and other “class enemies” but also as tools for economic development and the ideological re-education of prisoners. From the onset, people were arrested and sentenced not for their actions but for their identities or political affiliations, blurring the lines between criminals and political prisoners. This practice laid the groundwork for a vast penal system characterized by forced labor and harsh conditions.

As the civil war raged, the Bolsheviks expanded the use of labor camps, initially improvising with makeshift detention facilities. The chaotic and arbitrary nature of arrests and detentions reflected the tumultuous conditions of the time but also foreshadowed the systematic oppression that would define the Soviet state. The establishment of the Cheka, Lenin’s secret police, and the enactment of the Red Terror campaign further institutionalized state violence, as the camps were used as instruments of political repression.

This chapter underscores the Bolsheviks’ early reliance on repression and forced labor as foundational strategies for maintaining power and reshaping Soviet society. It highlights the ideological underpinnings of the penal system and its evolution from ad hoc measures during the civil war to a comprehensive and brutal mechanism of control.

Chapter 2 highlights the history and conditions of the Solovetsky concentration camp, the prototype for the future Gulag system. Initially a religious monastery, Solovetsky Island was transformed into a camp under Bolshevik control, symbolizing the brutal shift from a spiritual retreat to a site of political repression.

The camp harbored a diverse prisoner population, ranging from political dissidents to common criminals, all subjected to harsh conditions and forced labor. The narrative illustrates the evolution of forced labor as both a punitive and economic strategy of the Soviet regime, with the camp’s administration experimenting with profit-making activities using prisoner labor. The chapter exposes the contrasts within the camp, from the privileged existence of some political prisoners to the dire conditions faced by others, highlighting the irrationality and unpredictability that governed camp life.

Over time, the camp’s focus shifted toward increased efficiency and profitability, setting a precedent for the Gulag’s expansion across the Soviet Union. The transformation was driven by figures like Naftaly Frenkel, a prisoner-turned-commander, whose methodologies in labor exploitation marked a pivotal change in the Soviet penal system. The chapter concludes by reflecting on the diminishing distinction between political prisoners and common criminals, foreshadowing the broader implications for Soviet society under Stalin’s rule.

Chapter 3 outlines a critical period in Soviet history, marking the consolidation of the Gulag system under Josef Stalin’s rule. This chapter examines the ideological and structural shifts that transformed the Soviet penal system into a vast network of labor camps. These shifts began with the arrival of notable figures, including Maxim Gorky, at Solovetsky, setting a tone of high expectations and propaganda. Gorky’s visit, meant to showcase the camps as rehabilitative labor colonies, contrasts sharply with the reality of brutal conditions and political repression.

The chapter discusses Stalin’s strategic embrace of rapid industrialization and collectivization, highlighting how these policies necessitated an expansion of the prison labor force. The narrative uncovers the bureaucratic maneuvering that led to the OGPU (a secret police agency, later called the NKVD) gaining control over the camp system, emphasizing the economic motivations behind exploiting prisoner labor for ambitious state projects like the Moscow-Volga Canal and the extraction of natural resources in remote areas.

This period also saw the legal and social redefinition of “enemies” of the state, broadening the scope for arrests under the expanded Article 58. The chapter discusses the impact of these policies on the Soviet population, from the technical intelligentsia to peasants, many of whom became fodder for the burgeoning camp system. The collectivization drive, coupled with the “dekulakization” campaign (kulaks being a disapproving term for the more prosperous peasants), led to massive displacements, arrests, and deaths, further swelling the camps’ populations.

Chapter 4 details the ambitious construction of the White Sea-Baltic Canal in the early 1930s, a project driven by Stalin’s vision and largely realized through the labor of Gulag prisoners. The chapter highlights the juxtaposition between the Soviet Union’s sensitivity to international perception—especially regarding its use of forced labor—and the harsh realities of the canal’s construction. Efforts to mask the involvement of prisoner labor in the face of potential foreign boycotts and the renaming of camps to seem less oppressive are discussed alongside the actual conditions faced by prisoners: inadequate tools, makeshift living conditions, and brutal work schedules that led to high mortality rates.

The narrative also explores the propaganda surrounding the canal, portraying it as a transformative project for both the landscape and the prisoners themselves, with figures like Maxim Gorky playing key roles in this narrative construction. The canal was presented as a triumph of Soviet engineering and prisoner rehabilitation, despite the project’s dubious economic rationale and the inhumane conditions under which it was built. Applebaum underscores the contrast between the glorified propaganda of the canal and the grim reality of its construction, reflecting broader themes of illusion versus reality in the Soviet Union’s presentation of the Gulag system.

Chapter 5 examines the extensive growth of the Soviet Gulag system throughout the early 1930s, underscoring its pivotal role in the Soviet Union’s aggressive push for industrialization and territorial expansion. This phase of expansion was marked by the establishment of significant labor camps, such as the Ukhtinskaya Expedition and the Dalstroi Trust in the resource-rich but unforgiving Kolyma region. The narrative exposes the dual nature of the Gulag, serving both as an instrument of political repression and a critical force in the country’s economic ambitions.

The chapter provides an account of the harsh realities faced by the prisoners, including the high mortality rates and inhumane living conditions that characterized early camp life. Despite these adversities, there were also paradoxical efforts by camp administrators, particularly in Kolyma under Eduard Berzin’s leadership, to improve living conditions and incentivize prisoner productivity through better treatment and rewards for meeting labor quotas. These efforts, however, did little to mitigate the overall cruelty of the system.

Applebaum also details the propaganda surrounding the Gulag, which was aimed at both domestic and international audiences to justify and mask the brutality of the camps. She highlights the contrast between the official narratives of reform and rehabilitation and the grim reality of forced labor and exploitation.

Chapter 6 examines the period of 1937-1938, known as “the Great Terror,” under Stalin’s regime. Although not the deadliest in terms of camp fatalities, these years marked a significant shift in the Soviet Union’s political landscape, with extensive purges that affected the Gulag’s structure and its prisoners. Stalin used the Terror to consolidate his power, eliminating perceived threats within the Communist Party, the military, and the wider population, including the elite. Mass arrests, executions, and deportations were rampant, with quotas set for regions to fulfill.

The Gulag system itself underwent a transformation during this period, shifting from being merely poorly managed prisons to becoming sites where death and deliberate execution were commonplace. The purge not only targeted the general populace but also led to the elimination of many Gulag administrators and guards, deeply impacting the operational aspects of the camps. The chapter outlines the arbitrary nature of the arrests, the rapid expansion of the camp system, and the dehumanization of prisoners who were increasingly seen not as individuals but as labor units or enemies of the state.

The aftermath of the Great Terror saw a reorganization of the Gulag under new leadership, with Beria (See: Key Figures) attempting to make the camp system more economically productive while maintaining harsh conditions for prisoners. The period also put an end to any pretense of re-educating prisoners, firmly establishing the Gulag as a tool for punishment and economic exploitation rather than rehabilitation.