How to Be Perfect: The Correct Answer to Every Moral Question

This is an influential philosophical concept originated by Immanuel Kant. In its first and most famous formulation, the categorial imperative states that people should act only in ways that they would want to serve as a universal law for everyone to follow. A second formulation indicates that individuals should be treated as ends in themselves, never as a means to an end. As the central tenet of Kant’s moral theory, Schur frequently applies the categorical imperative while analyzing various moral dilemmas.

Consequentialism is a branch of moral philosophy that involves judging actions by their consequences, rather than the intrinsic qualities of the actions themselves. Schur uses the term more or less interchangeably with utilitarianism, though he acknowledges that utilitarianism is technically a subset of consequentialism.

This is a moral theory developed by T. M. Scanlon in his book What We Owe to Each Other. As the name suggests, contractualism involves working with other people to come to agreement about rules that should govern society. Schur highlights this as a minimum baseline for determining socially responsible behavior, as well as a rule of thumb in the same vein as Kant’s categorial imperative but easier to apply in practice.

As a major school of thought in moral philosophy, deontology centers on the supposition that certain actions are right or wrong in themselves, regardless of their consequences. Deontology is one of the major philosophical lenses that Schur regularly applies while analyzing various ethical questions.

Schur takes care to separate this term in its philosophical context from its more casual usage as a synonym for melancholy or sadness. Existential philosophers such as Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus view human existence, as well as the search for meaning, as fundamentally absurd. Schur cites their work as a reminder of human autonomy and a warning against relying too much on any one philosophical system.

The free rider problem is a thought experiment designed to investigate the moral standing of those who break small rules without directly hurting anyone else. Schur references the free rider problem as an example of breaking seemingly small or harmless rules.

Also known as the Goldilocks rule, this concept refers to the perfect balance or ideal sweet spot between two opposing extremes, such as anger and mildness. Aristotle developed this concept in his treatise on virtue ethics, though the term itself was coined later. Schur returns to this concept regularly in a variety of contexts, showing that the ideal response to a difficult situation often involves finding the middle ground between two competing values or impulses.

Closely related to justice, this concept includes the belief that someone should be rewarded for good actions or punished for bad ones. Schur introduces this concept to complicate readers’ perception of those who paradoxically act unselfishly for selfish reasons.

Schur coins the phrase “moral exhaustion” (and jokingly expresses his hope that it will catch on) to describe the condition of those who feel overwhelmed by the huge number of choices they face on a daily basis, many of which include a moral component. He uses this concept to connect with readers on a relatable basis.

As expounded by Susan Wolf, moral sainthood is one possible conception of what it means and looks like to be perfectly good. In this case, the saint is one who is completely devoted to others’ welfare and takes no time for personal pursuits or recreation. Rejecting moral sainthood as a viable goal, Schur uses this concept to push back against readers’ naïve or idealistic assumptions about what it means to become perfect.

Objectivism is a philosophy developed by Ayn Rand and presented in her novels, particularly The Fountainhead and Atlas Shrugged. Objectivism calls for each individual to heroically protect their own interests within a capitalist society. Schur regards Rand’s ideas as abhorrent, citing them as an example of moral decay.

As developed by policy analyst Joseph Overton, this concept describes the way that certain ideas are viewed by the public on a spectrum ranging from extreme to popular and acceptable. Schur uses this concept to illustrate the way that an individual’s moral sensitivities can change over time, given the right conditions, for better or for worse.

The trolley problem is an influential thought experiment that invites respondents to explore the relationship between choices and outcomes. In the original version, introduced by Philippa Foot in 1967, the choice is whether to redirect an out-of-control trolley that is about to run over five people onto a different track where it will kill only one person. This problem was later adapted into multiple variations, notably by Judith Thomson. Schur uses it to demonstrate the different approaches taken by the major schools of thought in moral philosophy.

Ubuntu is a conception of human identity and community shared among several cultures in southern Africa, sometimes under different names. In contrast with the individualism typical of Western culture, ubuntu involves an outlook of compassion and connection with others. Though it is difficult to define precisely, Schur references ubuntu as an inspirational model worth emulating.

This is one of the three major schools of thought in moral philosophy that Schur summarizes and returns to as a point of reference. Utilitarians such as Jeremy Bentham, John Stuart Mill, and Peter Singer argue that the correct choice is the one that produces the most happiness for the greatest number of people.

Introduced by John Rawls in his 1976 work A Theory of Justice, this thought experiment invites listeners to imagine that they are designing a society as outsiders before they know which roles they will randomly be assigned to fill. Only from such a perspective can we design a society that is just and fair to all. Schur references this concept to offer readers a fresh perspective on the inequalities that exist in society today, as well as the moral implications of those inequalities.

This is one of the three major schools of moral philosophy that Schur summarizes and uses as a reference point throughout the text. As pioneered by Aristotle, virtue ethics focuses on building key character traits through habituation. The goal is not merely to enjoy pleasure but to flourish, realizing our full potential as human beings.