The History of the Kings of Britain

“[Y]ou will never enjoy lasting peace as long as the brothers, son and grandsons of those on whom you have inflicted decisive defeat remain intermingled with you or as your neighbours [sic]. They will always remember the slaughter of their relatives and they will hate your for ever [sic].” 

Having subdued Greek king Pandrasus and freed the enslaved Trojans, Brutus ponders his next course of action. He considers demanding a portion of Pandrasus’ kingdom, but many Trojans want only to emigrate and be given supplies for their journey. The above speech is words of advice from Membritius to Brutus. Membritius warns Brutus that a conquered people will inevitably rise up against their oppressors. If Brutus demands part of Pandrasus’ kingdom, he will be setting himself up for future uprisings. The more prudent action is for Brutus to leave Greece and found a new land of his own.

This passage can serve two purposes. One is to craft the mythical origins of the British and represent them as the original, legitimate inhabitants of the island. The second is to subtly convey the message that Britons should not accept a secondary, subdued position on the island that their own ancestors founded.

“I take some comfort in the knowledge that I am about to give my daughter to a young man of such great prowess. The nobility which flourishes in him, and his fame, which is well-known to us, show him to be of the true race of Priam and Anchises. Who other but he could have freed from their chains the exiles of Troy, when they were enslaved by so many mighty princes? Who other but he could have led them in their resistance to the King of the Greeks; or have challenged in battle such a vast concourse of warriors with so few men, and led their King in chains in the very first engagement? Since so noble a young man has been able to resist me so courageously, I give him my daughter Ignoge. I also give him gold and silver, ships and corn, and whatsoever you will consider necessary for his journey.”

Defeated Greek king Pandrasus delivers the above speech after Brutus demands to marry Pandrasus’ daughter Ignoge. He is of royal lineage and a skilled warrior—both qualities associated with the heroes of ancient epics. Through Pandrasus’ speech, Geoffrey solidifies the link between Brutus and epic heroes like Odysseus, Achilles, and Aeneas, making Brutus an admirable founder and ancestor of and for the Britons.

“When he awoke from his vision, the leader remained in doubt as to whether it has been a dream which he had experienced or whether the living goddess really had prophesied the land to which he should travel.” 

During Brutus’ wanderings, he and his followers discover a temple of Diana; Brutus dreams that the goddess instructs him to travel to the uninhabited island that will become Britain. Diana’s orders could offer justification for Britain being a new Rome of sorts, but as a Christian cleric, Geoffrey must also be careful not to appear to be affirming the existence of pagan gods. Geoffrey negotiates this dilemma by presenting Diana’s visitation and orders as a dream that leaves Brutus unsure of exactly what he experienced. This leaves room for Britons to ascribe a mystical, divine element to Brutus’ experience without acknowledging the pagan gods as real.

“At that time the prophet Samuel was reigning in Judea, Aeneas Silvius was still alive and Homer was considered to be a famous rhetorician and poet.” 

In his narrative, Geoffrey only rarely dates events using specific years. Instead, he tends to contextualize happenings by explaining what else was occurring around the world at the same time. The above passage provides an example of this practice, which has two potential purposes. One is that it provides verisimilitude. Second is that it attempts to affirm Geoffrey’s credibility as a historian by demonstrating his knowledge of world events. 

“The spirit of discord is, however, perpetually on the watch for a chance to put an end to a state of prosperity.” 

Geoffrey saturates his narrative with gossip-filled stories about the strengths and flaws of Britain’s monarchs. Even when he generalizes about the dangers of conquerors living among the defeated (see quote two), it is presented as Membritius’ speech rather than an authorial insight. The above passage is a rare example of Geoffrey as the author generalizing from the events he describes. It is especially significant because Geoffrey is warning his audience about the dangers of civil discord, the very flaw that resulted in the expulsion of the Britons from their homeland. 

“If anyone wishes to know the full details of the Highway Code established by Belinus, he must read the Molmutine Laws which the historian Gildas translated from Welsh into Latin, and which King Alfred later rewrote in the English language.” 

In addition to providing historical context, Geoffrey cultivates credibility and attempts to further establish it by citing other historians. Throughout his text, Geoffrey mentions sources that he may have consulted and/or that readers can consult for additional information. That he does so supports the theory that Geoffrey wrote his text for individuals to read rather than to be read aloud.

“Morvidus would have been famous for his prowess had he not indulged in the most outrageous cruelty. Once he had lost his temper he spared no one, committing mayhem on the spot, if only he could lay his hands on his weapons. For all this he was handsome to look at and he distributed gifts most open-handedly. In the whole land there was no one who was as brave as he, or who could resist him in a fight.” 

In Part 2, Geoffrey briskly marches forward through hundreds of years of British monarchs, sometimes naming successors with little comment, and other times recounting anecdotes about the monarchs that bring them to life. The above passage demonstrates the latter. Geoffrey’s tone can be almost gossipy at times, as he comments on the strengths and weaknesses of particular monarchs. Through these descriptions, Geoffrey also highlights the qualities that lead to success or failure, which serves an oblique didactic purpose.

“First of all I must send a message to them, to order them to pay tax, just as other peoples do homage to the Senate without their having been approached or attacked by the people of Rome, for we must not shed the blood of our kinsmen, nor offend the ancient dignity of our common ancestor Priam.” 

Julius Caesar ponders how to take over Britain. Caesar believes the people of Britain have become “degenerate” when compared with the Romans since they “know nothing at all about modern warfare, living as they do beyond the deep sea and quite cut off from the world” (89). At the same time, he recognizes a common kinship with them, and so prefers to make them a tributary state rather than destroy them. Presenting Caesar’s rumination provides Geoffrey another opportunity to identify Britons as descendants of Troy while working within established history.

“The cupidity of the Roman people, my dear Caesar, is really quite beyond belief. They have an insatiable thirst for anything made of gold or silver, to the point that they cannot leave even us alone, although we live over the edge of the world and far beyond the perilous seas. They even have the nerve to stretch out their greedy fingers towards our small revenues, which up to now we have enjoyed in peace. This does not satisfy them: they want us to surrender our liberty and to endure perpetual bondage by becoming subject to them. What you have sought from us, Caesar, is an insult to yourself, for a common inheritance of noble blood comes down from Aeneas to Briton and to Roman alike, and our two races should be joined in close amity by this link of glorious kinship. It is friendship which you should have asked of us, not slavery.”

This is an excerpt from Cassivelaunus’ response to Caesar’s request for tribute. Cassivelaunus reaffirms the Britons’ royal lineage and nobility, in the process reminding Britons to take pride in their history and value their liberty. The passage serves Geoffrey’s patriotic purpose to assert that the Britons should see themselves as second to none—not even to the vaunted Roman Empire. 

“How remarkable the British race was at that time! Twice it had put to flight the man who had subjected to his will the entire world. Even now, when driven off the battlefield, the Britons went on resisting the man whom the whole world could not withstand. They were ready to die for their fatherland and for their liberty.” 

According to Geoffrey, it took three attempts for Julius Caesar to conquer Cassivelaunus, and then only because Androgeus betrayed his countryman. Geoffrey’s exclamatory sentence conveys the heroic nature of the Britons. The Roman Empire was conquering the world, but the Britons stood firm and successfully resisted. The implication is that Rome did not conquer Britain; rather, their self-destruction tendency for civil discord ultimately undid them. 

“However, it is easier for a kite to be made to act like a sparrow-hawk than for a wise man to be fashioned at short notice from a peasant. He who offers any depth of wisdom to such a person is acting as though he were throwing a pearl among swine.” 

Prior to this passage, Archbishop of London Guithelinus addressed the men of military age who have assembled in London as ordered by the Romans prior to their departure. The Archbishop exhorted the men to “throw off your laziness and your lethargy” and fight their enemies instead of relying on Rome to fight them (121). He tells them to “behave like men,” be courageous, and “protect your own liberty” (121). However, as Geoffrey expresses in the above aphorism, his words fall like “pearls among swine” because the best warriors have been sent away in pursuit of foreign territory. The men left behind, who Guithelinus addresses, are not capable of replacing them (121). The implicit warning is that rather than sending the most capable troops to conquer distant lands, they should first and foremost protect their homeland.

“With these two tasks to preoccupy me I was afraid that my ability might well prove inadequate for both of them. However, I was assured in advance of the kind indulgence which the sympathetic understanding of your own subtle wit would afford me. I therefore pressed my rustic reedpipe to my lips and, modulating on it in all humility, I translated into Latin this work written in a language which is unknown to you. All the same, I am greatly surprised that you should have deigned to commit the task to so poor a pen as mine, when your all-powerful want could command the service of so many men more learned and more splendid than I—men who would soothe the ears of your own wise self with the delight of their sublimed song.” 

This passage is a portion of a letter Geoffrey wrote to Alexander, Bishop of Lincoln, included in the beginning of Part 5 as context for sharing Merlin’s prophecies. Geoffrey claims that Alexander asked Geoffrey to translate the prophecies. As in the dedication to The History of the Kings of Britain, Geoffrey effusively praises, perhaps hoping to curry favor for the task he has undertaken. Geoffrey also again incorporates an excusatio propter infirmitatem, a conventional medieval device in which authors apologize for their deficiencies, possibly as a way to shift responsibility for any errors in their works away from themselves.

“The Charioteer of York will soothe the people. He will throw his master out and climb up into the chariot which he is driving. He will draw his sword and threaten the East, and he will fill with blood the ruts made by his wheels. Next he will turn himself into a Seafish and mate with a Snake which has attracted him by its hissing.

As a result there shall be born three Bulls, which will glitter like lightening. They will eat up their pasture-lands and then be turned into trees.” 

This passage contains a characteristic sample of Merlin’s prophecies. Merlin uses recognizable place names. Animal types are capitalized, indicating their symbolic value, and morph into different forms. Scholars believe Geoffrey’s audience would have recognized some of the prophecies as having already been fulfilled. Other aspects of the prophecies remain obscure.

“Aurelius then exhorted his comrades to place all their hope in the Son of God, to attack their enemies boldly and to fight as one man for their homeland.” 

The armies of Hengist and Aurelius prepare to face each other. Hengist and his Saxon pagans have betrayed and slaughtered the Britons. Aurelius’ exhortation to his troops reinforces the value of a Christian Britain and is meant to stir patriotic identification among readers. 

“The star signifies you in person, and so does the fiery dragon beneath the star. The beam of light, which stretches towards the shore of Gaul, signifies your son, who will be a most powerful man. His dominion shall extend over all the kingdoms which the beam covers. The second ray signifies your daughter, whose sons and grandsons shall hold one after the other the kingship of Britain.” 

Merlin delivers a prophecy to Utherpendragon after Aurelius Ambrosius’ death. The son in the prophecy refers to King Arthur. Connecting Arthur’s birth to a prophecy conveys a sense of divinely-appointed destiny, wrapping his upcoming birth in a mystical greatness. In this way, Geoffrey beings to craft a mythology of Arthur as a king whose exploits can rival those of Charlemagne, the rival Frankish king who became Holy Roman Emperor in the eighth century.

“On his head he placed a golden helmet, with a crest carved in the shape of a dragon; and across his shoulders a circular shield called Pridwen, on which there was painted a likeness of the Blessed Mary, Mother of God, which forced him to be thinking perpetually of her. He girded on his peerless sword, called Caliburn, which was forced in the Isle of Avalon. A spear called Ron graced his right hand: long, broad in the bad and thirsty for slaughter. Arthur drew up his men in companies and then bravely attacked the Saxons, who as usual were arrayed in wedges.”

Arthur adorns himself for battle against the Saxons. This is part of the narrative set piece that Geoffrey employs throughout the text. With Arthur, Geoffrey blends Christian imagery (the Virgin Mary on his shield) with imagery from Merlin’s prophecies (the dragon) to reinforce that Arthur is a Christian king fated to lead Britain to glory.

“On the other side, which was flanked by meadows and wooded groves, they had adorned the city with royal palaces, and by the gold-painted gables of its roofs it was a match for Rome. What is more, it was famous for its two churches. […] The city also contained a college of two hundred learned men, who were skilled in astronomy and the other arts, and who watched with great attention the courses of the stars and so by their careful computations prophesied for King Arthur any prodigies due at that time.” 

Geoffrey describes the City of the Legions where Arthur sets up his plenary court and prepares to celebrate Pentecost after conquering Gaul. The comparison to Rome is significant; it's another reminder that Britain is second to none. With the addition of Christian churches and “learned men” who chart “the courses of the stars,” Geoffrey suggests that Britain has surpassed Rome (194).

“The king went off with the men to feast in his own palace and the Queen retired with the married women to feast in hers; for the Britons still observed the ancient custom of Troy, the men celebrating festive occasions with their fellow-men and the women eating separately with the other women.” 

Geoffrey describes the feasts at which men and women celebrate in separate quarters, as did their Trojan ancestors. As always, Geoffrey takes every opportunity to connect Britain to Troy and, by extension, Rome. Arthur’s court is set during the fifth century CE, some 1,600 years after the fall of Troy, but their strong connection to the once-illustrious past continues to be honored and observed.

“Every knight in the country who was in any way famed for his bravery wore livery and arms showing his own distinctive colour [sic]; and women of fashion often displayed the same colours [sic]. They scorned to give their love to any man who had not proved himself three times in battle. In this way the womenfolk became chaste and more virtuous and for their love the knights were ever more daring.” 

After the feast, Arthur’s knights compete in competitive games—another convention of ancient epics. This passage briefly touches on the courtly tradition and chivalric code that would provide inspiration and become a popular subject for artists and writers throughout time. 

“If the Roman decrees that tribute ought to be paid him by Britain simply because Julius Caesar and other Roman leaders conquered this country years ago, then I decree in the same way that Rome ought to give me tribute, in that my ancestors once captured that city.” 

While celebrating with his knights, Arthur receives an envoy from Lucius in which he berates Arthur for not paying tribute to Rome and demands that he present himself before the Senate. Historically, this event is somewhat anachronistic. The western Roman Empire collapsed early in the fourth century. However, creating a conflict between Arthur and Rome enables Geoffrey to revisit the notion of Britain as an inheritor of the Roman Empire through Arthur. At the same time, his confrontation with Lucius adds to his mythic stature.

“‘My noble leaders,’ he said, ‘you to whose sovereignty the kingdoms both of the East and of the West owe obedience, remember now the deeds of your ancestors. [...] All this integrity, honour and munificence which distinguished men of noble birth flourished in them down the years. This lifted them and their descendants to the overlordship of the whole world. I now want to rouse this same spirit in you. I beg you to remember the bravery of your forefathers.” 

This is an excerpt from the speech Lucius delivers to his troops before facing Arthur. Reproducing the speeches of opposing leaders is a convention of ancient histories. In the context of Geoffrey’s tale, showing opponents as brave and noble makes defeat of those opponents more impressive. Thus, by portraying Lucius as a noble and skilled Roman, Geoffrey highlights the extraordinary nature of Arthur, who defeated him. 

“Just as in times gone by the ancestors of the Romans had harassed the forefathers of the Britons with their unjust oppressions, so now did the Britons make every effort to protect their own freedom, which the Romans were trying to take away from them, by refusing the tribute which was wrongly demanded of them.” 

Geoffrey remarks on the turnabout events that were only to occur because of Arthur's bravery and achievement in battle and as king. In prior times, the Romans bested the Britons; now, however, the tide has turned, and the Britons mercilessly defeat the Romans. 

“About this particular matter, most noble Duke, Geoffrey of Monmouth prefers to say nothing. He will, however, in his own poor style and without wasting words, describe the battle which our most famous King fought against his nephew, once he had returned to Britain after his victory; for that he found in the British treatise already referred to. He heard it, too, from Walter of Oxford, a man most learned in all branches of history.” 

The matter Geoffrey does not wish to comment upon regards Mordred and Guinevere’s illicit relationship. It is a bit of an affectation as Geoffrey underscores his delicacy and good judgment in not focusing on an untoward subject. The rest of the passage performs another excusatio propter infirmitatem: Geoffrey draws attention to his sources, implying any errors he makes are not his own. Another notable aspect of this passage is his reference to “hearing” the story from Walter (219). Some scholars have theorized that the “certain very ancient book” Geoffrey refers to in his dedication may actually be a reference to oral stories conveyed by Walter (39).